Cervical Cancer: Symptoms, Stages, and Support

Medically reviewed by:Sarah Adams, MD, OCRA Scientific Advisor

Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that begins in the cervix, which is the narrow, lower part of the uterus where it connects to the upper end of the vagina. This is different from ovarian cancer, which often originates in the fallopian tubes or the ovaries, which are reproductive organs located on each side of the uterus in the pelvis. Cervical cancer typically develops slowly, starting with abnormal changes in cervical cells that may become cancerous over time if not detected and treated early.

HPV-associated Cervical Cancers

The majority of cervical cancers are associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infections and are classified based on how the cancer cells look microscopically:

• Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type, accounting for about 90% of all cervical cancer diagnoses. It develops in the squamous cells that line the outer surface of the cervix, called the ectocervix.
• Adenocarcinomas, which develop from glandular cells of the endocervix, or cervical canal, are less common.
• Adenosquamous carcinoma, also known as mixed carcinoma, are cervical cancers with squamous cell and adenocarcinoma features.

Non-HPV cancers

Rare tumor types that are not associated with HPV infection can arise in the cervix. These include:

• Neuroendocrine carcinomas can arise from multiple sites, including the cervix.
• Small cell carcinoma is a very rare subtype of neuroendocrine cancer that can also arise from the cervix.
• It is possible (although very rare) for cancers that occur in other parts of the body — such as melanoma, sarcoma, or lymphoma — to develop in the cervix.

Cervical cancer often does not cause noticeable symptoms in its early stages. As the disease progresses, however, certain warning signs may appear. Recognizing these symptoms early and talking to a healthcare provider is important for timely diagnosis and treatment.

Common signs and symptoms of cervical cancer include:

• Abnormal vaginal bleeding, particularly bleeding after intercourse, or bleeding or spotting between periods. Less commonly, people may also experience heavy or irregular periods or post-menopausal bleeding.
• Unusual vaginal discharge, which may contain blood.
• Pelvic pain or pain during sexual intercourse.
• Leg swelling.
• Problems with urination or bowel movements.
• Blood in the urine.

If you are experiencing any of these symptoms, see a healthcare professional and tell them about your concerns.

Cervical cancer is the only gynecologic cancer with effective prevention and screening tools.

Vaccination against HPV and regular cervical cancer screening can greatly reduce the risk of developing the disease or help detect it early when it is most treatable

• The main cause of cervical cancer is a persistent infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is commonly transmitted during sexual contact or sexual intercourse. While most HPV infections go away on their own, certain strains can stay in the body and lead to cancerous changes in cervical cells over time. Strains of the virus that are associated with cervical cancer are specifically targeted by the HPV vaccines. The HPV vaccine can prevent cervical cancer that stems from HPV infections, and is recommended by the CDC.
• Smoking can increase the risk that an HPV infection may lead to cancerous changes in the cervix. It can weaken the immune system and interfere with the body’s ability to clear the virus, making it easier for abnormal cells to develop in the cervix.
• A weakened immune system. Because most cervical cancer is caused by a viral infection, conditions or medications that suppress immune function can increase a person’s risk of developing HPV infection and cervical cancer. These include infections like HIV, or autoimmune disorders, or the use of steroids or other immunosuppressive medications.

Staging describes how far cervical cancer has spread in the body, and it plays a key role in determining treatment options and prognosis. If a biopsy confirms the presence of cervical cancer, further tests may be ordered to learn the extent of the cancer’s spread, or stage.

If a biopsy confirms the presence of cervical cancer, further tests may be ordered to learn the extent of the cancer’s spread, or stage.

• A pelvic exam may be performed under anesthesia to evaluate the tissue adjacent to the cervix for evidence of tumor spread.
• Cystoscopy is an examination using a thin camera that can be placed in the bladder through the urethra to look for any evidence that the cancer has invaded the bladder wall.
• Proctoscopy involves an inspection of the rectum, using a lighted tube, to look for tumor involvement of the rectum.

Imaging tests may also help determine if, or how far, cervical cancer has spread:

• Chest x-ray or CT scan (computed tomography) can show if cervical cancer has spread to the lungs.
• CT scan or MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) can look for evidence of tumor involvement beyond the cervix.
• PET scan (positron emission tomography) uses a labeled sugar substance to identify possible tumor involvement of tissues such as lymph nodes. This substance collects mainly in cancer cells, and shows up in imaging. PET scans are sometimes performed at the same time as CT scans.
• Intravenous pyelogram or IVP, is an x-ray of the urinary system to evaluate for hydronephrosis, or swelling of the kidneys resulting from compression of a pelvic tumor.

Treatment of cervical cancer is determined primarily by the stage at diagnosis. The clinical stage is based on whether metastatic spread is detected using imaging tests, biopsies, and physical exams. The pathologic stage includes information obtained from surgery, including whether tumor cells are present in lymph nodes or other sites.

Cervical cancer treatment depends primarily on the stage of the disease, as well as a patient’s overall health and treatment goals. In the early stages, cervical cancer may be treated with surgery to remove the cervix and uterus with a hysterectomy. This often also includes removal of lymph nodes in the pelvis to evaluate for any evidence of cancer spread. In some cases, fertility sparing treatment in which the cervix, or a portion of the cervix but not the uterus is removed may be an option for young women with small tumors. Sometimes people additionally receive radiation, chemotherapy, or immune therapy after surgery.

In advanced stages, surgery is not recommended. Instead, most people are treated with a combination of radiation and chemotherapy. Chemoradiation helps target both the tumor and any cancer cells that may have spread nearby.

Targeted therapies and clinical trials may also be available for eligible patients. Clinical trials offer access to new treatments that are being tested for safety and effectiveness.

The right treatment plan should be discussed with your care team, based on your individual diagnosis. Learn more about treatment options by visiting our cervical cancer treatment resource page.

Read more about cervical cancer treatments.

A recurrence refers to cancer that has come back after treatment. Recurrent cervical cancer can appear locally (in the cervix or nearby tissues), regionally (in nearby lymph nodes), or distantly (in organs like the lungs or liver). If cervical cancer recurs, a doctor will assess the location of the recurrent disease and make recommendations for treatment. In determining next steps, patients should discuss their goals for care and treatment.

Treatment options for recurrent cervical cancer may include chemotherapy, radiation, targeted therapy, or immunotherapy, depending on where the cancer has returned and how extensively it has spread.

Some patients may be able to participate in a clinical trial that evaluates up-and-coming treatments for cervical cancer recurrence.

Cervical cancer survival rates depend largely on how early the cancer is diagnosed and whether it has spread beyond the cervix. The average 5-year survival rate for cervical cancer varies based on the stage at diagnosis. 

• Early-stage cervical cancer (Stage I): The 5-year survival rate may be as high as 91%.
• Cancer that has spread regionally (Stage II or III): The 5-year survival rate averages around 60%.
• Distant metastatic cervical cancer (Stage IV): The 5-year survival rate drops to about 19%.

As with every cancer diagnosis, it is important to remember that statistics are a set of trends based on observations of large groups of people and are not an individual prognosis. If you have been diagnosed with cervical cancer, talk to your medical team about your specific circumstances.

According to SEER Cancer Stat Facts, in 2025, 13,360 women will find out they have invasive cervical cancer, and 4,320 women will die from cervical cancer.

For detailed information about cervical cancer, visit the American Cancer Society.

OCRA has several support programs for individuals facing cervical cancer, as well as their loved ones.

The Woman to Woman Peer Mentor Program matches trained survivor Mentors with gynecologic cancer patients. Woman to Woman is offered at sites across the country and is also available through our virtual national mentoring program. If you or someone you know is navigating a cervical cancer diagnosis, you can request a peer mentor for one-on-one support.

OCRA’s Staying Connected Support Series is a comprehensive virtual program open to anyone affected by cervical or other gynecologic cancers. Sessions are offered weekly and monthly and cover a wide range of topics, from emotional wellness to practical coping strategies. Registration is free but required. View the support series schedule and register today.

For community support, OCRA’s online forum provides a warm, welcoming space where patients, survivors, and loved ones can share their experiences and connect with others affected by cervical cancer.